However, coastal boulders now on land in tropical and subtropical areas such as Japan and Tonga are often covered by deep vegetation, which makes 3D surveys difficult.
For this reason, boulders have recently been surveyed using 3D scanning techniques such as LiDAR. Therefore, it prevents estimation of the tsunami or storm size reasonably using models. However, if the boulder’s shape is complex, this method is unable to represent the actual shape accurately. Traditionally, they have often been assumed to be rectangular or ellipsoidal with three axes measured in the field. These models fundamentally require the precise shape of boulders. Huge coastal boulders are useful to reconstruct the size of past extreme waves such as those associated with tsunamis and storms using inverse-type or forward-type boulder transport models.
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